645 résultats pour "material"

• Planetary Science - astronomy.

  III ORIGINS AND COMPOSITIONS OF PLANETS Astronomers believe that planetary systems are formed of elemental materials that were created in the interiors of giant stars. Some of this material comes from giantstars that shed material into space as they age. Most of the matter to form planets, however, comes from stars that explode as supernovas and spread debris enrichedwith the heavier chemical elements into space. According to the currently accepted views, the most likely first stage in the evo...

• Volcano.

  before eruption. Very violent explosive eruptions are called Plinian eruptions, after Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder. These eruptions can last for several hours to daysand eject a large amount of pyroclastic material. Some volcanoes can produce much more energetic eruptions that eject materials farther from the vents because oftheir andesitic and dacitic composition. Andesitic and dacitic lava is generally thicker than basaltic lava. Stiff lava generally produces more-explosive eruptions. B No...

• Nuclear Weapons.

  Regardless of the method used to attain a supercritical assembly, the chain reaction proceeds for about a millionth of a second, liberating vast amounts of heat energy.The extremely fast release of a very large amount of energy in a relatively small volume causes the temperature to rise to tens of millions of degrees. The resultingrapid expansion and vaporization of the bomb material causes a powerful explosion. VI PRODUCTION OF FISSILE MATERIAL Much experimentation was necessary to make the p...

• Pollution.

  One of the greatest challenges caused by air pollution is global warming, an increase in Earth’s temperature due to the buildup of certain atmospheric gases such ascarbon dioxide. With the heavy use of fossil fuels in the 20th century, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have risen dramatically. Carbon dioxide and othergases, known as greenhouse gases, reduce the escape of heat from the planet without blocking radiation coming from the Sun. Because of this greenhouse effect,average glob...

• Cloning - biology.

  found that such embryo cells are totipotent (able to give rise to all the different cell types in the body). Exploiting this characteristic, scientists developed three techniques to clone embryo cells: blastomere separation, blastocyst division, and somatic cell nuclear transfer. A Blastomere Separation In blastomere separation, scientists fertilize an egg cell with a sperm cell in a laboratory dish. The resulting embryo is allowed to divide until it forms a mass of aboutfour cells. Scientist...

• Electricidad - ciencia y tecnologia.

  forma, las varillas adquieren cargas del mismo signo. Si se cuelga una varilla de un hilo de forma que pueda girar y se le acerca laotra, la primera gira alejándose de la segunda, lo que demuestra que las cargas se repelen. Si las dos varillas tuvieran cargas designo opuesto, la primera se acercaría a la segunda, puesto que las cargas de distinto signo se atraen.© Microsoft Corporation. Reservados todos los derechos. El primer fenómeno eléctrico artificial que se observó fue la propiedad que pre...

• Nanotechnology.

  ever-finer method of reducing material to the nanoscale size. Instead, nanostructures would be assembled atom by atom and molecule by molecule, from the atomiclevel up, just as occurs in nature. However, assembly at this scale has its own challenges. In school, children learn about some of these challenges when they study the random Brownian motion seen in particles suspended in liquids such as water. Theparticles themselves are not moving. Rather, the water molecules that surround the particles...

• Comet - astronomy.

  may exceed the planet Jupiter in size, however. Observations from telescopes on Earth and in space indicate that most of the gases in the coma and tail of a comet are fragmentary molecules, or radicals, of the mostcommon elements in space: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. The radicals, for example, of CH, NH, and OH may be broken away from the stable molecules CH 4 (methane), NH 3 (ammonia), and H 2O (water), which may exist as ices or more complex, very cold compounds in the nucleus. Al...

• Modelado fluvial - geografía.

  La corriente transporta el material erosionado río abajo, acompañado de los sedimentos arrastrados al cauce por las escorrentías —el flujo que surca la superficie, cuando elsuelo ya no puede absorber más el agua de las precipitaciones—. Todo este material recibe el nombre de carga fluvial. Se puede clasificar esta carga fluvial en trescategorías, según su origen. Los productos disueltos son los sedimentos derivados de la corrosión y de la meteorización química. Las partículas arrastradas por las...

• L'opposition de la matière et de l'esprit est-elle une évidence du sens commun ?

  TEXTE 1 EPICURE, Lettre à Hérodote (Ille siècle av. J.-C.) TEXTE 2 BACHELARD. Après avoir publié en 1932 Le Pluralisme cohérent de la chimie moderne,Gaston Bachelard publie en 1953 un second ouvrage consacré àl'épistémologie de la chimie, Le Matérialisme rationnel, où il tente de dégagerle sens véritable du concept de matérialisme lorsqu'il s'applique à la chimiecontemporaine. Loin d'être un concept simple, renvoyant à une matière simpleet solide, le matérialisme rationnellement...

• Hazardous Wastes.

  A Source Reduction The best way to eliminate hazardous wastes is not to generate them in the first place. For example, improvements have been made in the production of integratedcircuits: The toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons commonly used in the 1970s were replaced in the 1980s by less toxic glycol ethers and in the 1990s by low-toxicity estersand alcohols. B Recycling Recycling is the recovery or reuse of usable materials from waste. About 5 percent of hazardous waste in the United States is re...

• Library of Congress.

  manuscripts, books, and films. The Digital Library’s eventual goal is to make available 80 million items from the Library of Congress’s collection that are not easilyavailable elsewhere. V ORGANIZATION AND FUNDING The librarian of Congress serves as the director of the institution. Tradition, politics, and strong personalities have shaped the function of this office. Although the Libraryof Congress was established in 1800, the office of librarian was not created until passage of a law in 1802....

• architecture (technique).

  De nombreuses régions du monde permettent l'extraction de pierre, dont la dureté et la résistance au gel sont variables. Le bois, plus facile à obtenir et à mettre en œuvre, a longtemps été un matériau privilégié. Dans les pays occidentaux, son usage est aujourd'hui limité à la charpente et aux huisseries. La terre séchée (pisé) ou cuite (brique) supplée la rareté ou l'absence de ces matériaux dans de nombreuses régions. Le métal est utilisé depuis l'Antiquité comme élément de liaison dans la ma...

• Sewage Disposal.

  greater load on the piping system and the treatment plant. The amount of storm-water drainage to be carried away depends on the amount of rainfall as well as on the runoff or yield of the watershed ( see Drainage). A typical metropolitan area discharges a volume of wastewater equal to about 60 to 80 percent of its total daily water requirements, the rest being used for washingcars and watering lawns, and for manufacturing processes such as food canning and bottling. B Composition The composi...

• sculpture - sculpture.

  3.3. 1 La taille directe Le sculpteur en taille directe attaque le bloc de pierre avec une idée plus ou moins élaborée des formes qu’il veut en dégager ; il peut partir d’esquisses dessinées ou modelées et reporte régulièrement sur son bloc des traits au charbon qui lui permettent de se guider à toutes les étapes de son travail. Celui-ci commence par l’épanelage et le dégrossissage du bloc, par la recherche des plans principaux puis des plans intermédiaires, et se poursuit par le dégagement des...

• Natural Satellite - astronomy.

  Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, also has few impact craters. Although icy volcanism from water and ammonia may occur along with some tectonic activity, Titan’s youngsurface is most likely the result of weather processes. Titan’s dense, cold atmosphere precipitates particles of complex organic molecules that accumulate as dunes andmountains. Methane rain erodes the surface and creates lakes at the moon’s poles. Triton’s young surface also may result from processes in its atmosphere, as well aserupt...

• Igneous Rock.

  As a magma cools, the first crystals to form will be of minerals that become solid at relatively high temperatures (usually olivine and a type of feldspar known asanorthite). The composition of these early-formed mineral crystals will be different from the initial composition of the magma. Consequently, as these growing crystalstake certain elements out of the magma in certain proportions, the composition of the remaining liquid changes. This process is known as magmatic differentiation.Sometime...

• Airplane.

  For example, the Anglo-French Concorde, a commercial supersonic aircraft, was generally limited to over-water routes, or to those over sparsely populated regions ofthe world. This limitation impacted the commercial viability of the Concorde, which ended its regular passenger service in October 2003. Designers today believe theycan help lessen the impact of sonic booms created by supersonic airliners but probably cannot eliminate them. One of the most difficult practical barriers to supersonic fl...

• eaux usées (faune & Flore).

  4.2 Composition La composition des eaux usées s’analyse par le biais de diverses mesures physiques, chimiques et biologiques. Les analyses les plus fréquentes comportent des mesures dedéchets solides, de la demande biochimique en oxygène mesurée après 5 jours (DBO5), de la demande chimique en oxygène (DCO) et du pH. Les déchets solidescomprennent les solides dissous et en suspension. Les solides dissous sont les matériaux qui passent à travers un papier filtre et les solides en suspension sont...

• Bacteria - ciencias de la naturaleza.

  2.3 Bacterias autótrofas y heterótrofas Respecto a la fuente de carbono que utilizan para nutrirse, las bacterias se pueden clasificar en autótrofas y heterótrofas. Las bacterias autótrofas (producen su propioalimento), lo obtienen del dióxido de carbono (CO 2). Sin embargo, la mayoría de las bacterias son heterótrofas (no producen su propio alimento) y obtienen el carbono de nutrientes orgánicos como el azúcar. Algunas especies heterótrofas sobreviven como parásitos, creciendo dentro de otros...

• Computer Memory.

  been created, information can be retrieved but not changed. Newer technologies allow ROMs to be semi-permanent—that is, the information can be changed, but ittakes several seconds to make the change. For example, a FLASH memory acts like a ROM because values remain stored in memory, but the values can be changed. C External Memory External memory can generally be classified as either magnetic or optical, or a combination called magneto-optical. A magnetic storage device, such as a computer'shar...

• Optics I INTRODUCTION Mirage Mirages appear because differences in air temperature cause light rays from an object to take different paths to a viewer's eye.

  Refraction of Light by DiamondsThe brilliance of diamonds is due to their high refractive index, a measure of how strongly a transparent material bendslight rays. The skill of the gem-cutter lies in angling the facets of the stone so that each light ray entering it is reflectedmany times before it emerges again.Spencer Grant/Photo Researchers, Inc. The amount of light reflected depends on the ratio of the refractive indexes for the two media. The plane of incidence contains the incident ray and...

• Supernova - astronomy.

  The term hypernova has been proposed for an extremely massive core-collapse supernova—possibly more than 100 times the mass of the Sun. A hypernova is thought to form a black hole. Just before it explodes, a hypernova may release a huge burst of gamma rays in a jet from the rotating black hole at its center. These jets mayexplain the so-called long gamma-ray bursts detected by astronomers. According to some researchers, massive stars with over 40 solar masses may sometimescollapse directly int...

• Pablo Picasso.

  Color juxtapositions—between blue and orange, for instance—are intentionally strident and unharmonious. The representation of space is fragmented and discontinuous. While the left side of the canvas is largely Iberian-influenced, the right side is inspired by African masks, especially in its striped patterns and oval forms. Suchborrowings, which led to great simplification, distortion, and visual incongruities, were considered extremely daring in 1907. The head of the figure at the bottom right,...

• Electricity I INTRODUCTION Electricity, one of the basic forms of energy.

  electrons in the neutral object are attracted to the positive object. Some of these electrons flow to the side of the neutral object that is nearest to the positive object.This side of the neutral object accumulates electrons and becomes negatively charged. Because electrons leave the far side of the neutral object while its protonsremain stationary, that side becomes positively charged. Since the negatively charged side of the neutral object is closest to the positive object, the attraction bet...

• Magnetism I INTRODUCTION Magnetism, an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the fundamental forces of nature.

  the French physicist Paul Langevin produced a theory regarding the temperature dependence of the magnetic properties of paramagnets (discussed below), which wasbased on the atomic structure of matter. This theory is an early example of the description of large-scale properties in terms of the properties of electrons and atoms.Langevin's theory was subsequently expanded by the French physicist Pierre Ernst Weiss, who postulated the existence of an internal, “molecular” magnetic field inmaterials...

• barrage.

  L’eau qui retourne à la rivière en aval du barrage ne doit pas avoir la possibilité de creuser ou d’éroder ni le lit de la rivière, ni d’affecter la fondation du barrage par effet decavitation. Ainsi, des plans d’eau, appelés bassins de rétention, sont prévus pour réduire la vitesse de l’eau, et donc son énergie cinétique. Ces bassins constituent unélément majeur du barrage. Le bassin en tablier et le bassin à chocs sont des structures courantes, permettant de diminuer l’énergie élevée de la chu...

• Nova - astronomy.

  When first discovered, the spectrum of a nova shows that the expanding layers of gas that cause the brightening have temperatures of 40,000° to 50,000° C (70,000°to 90,000° F)—about eight times as hot as the surface of the Sun. By the time a nova reaches maximum brightness, the temperature of the material has fallen to about10,000° C (about 20,000° F), or lower. Just after maximum brightness, the escaping cloud of gas cools and expands enough to become transparent. This transparency allows astro...

• emballage - agriculture et agroalimentaire.

  bouchons, les anneaux et autres languettes d'arrachage. Les étiquettes, les films thermorétractables et l'emballage lui-même sont utilisés afin de donner les informationsnécessaires sur le contenu et son utilisation. 5 CODES-BARRES Les codes-barres sont des codes d'identification imprimés désormais sur chaque produit ou emballage de fabrication industrielle, mais ils concernent aussi les laboratoiresd'analyses médicales, afin notamment d'identifier l'origine des prélèvements. Dans la grande dis...

• Carbon - chemistry.

  Graphite is black and slippery and conducts electricity. In graphite, the atoms form planar, or flat, layers. Each layer is made up of rings containing six carbon atoms.The rings are linked to each other in a structure that resembles the hexagonal mesh of chicken wire. Each atom has three sigma bonds (with 120° between any two ofthe bonds) and belongs to three neighboring rings. The fourth electron of each atom becomes part of an extensive pi bond system. Graphite conducts electricity,because th...

• X-Ray Astronomy - astronomy.

  Some neutron stars have weaker magnetic fields that allow incoming material to settle onto the entire surface of the neutron star. Eventually, so much material buildsup that the surface layer becomes dense enough to set off a vast thermonuclear explosion, called an outburst. The explosion heats gas to produce X rays. Such aneutron star—called an X-ray burster—can increase its X-ray production by a million times during an outburst. The X-ray glow fades over time, and the binary systementers a lon...

• Turkmenistan - country.

  A Ethnic Groups With Turkmens constituting 77 percent of the population, Turkmenistan is the most ethnically homogeneous of the Central Asian republics. Uzbeks make up the largestminority group, with about 9 percent of the population. Other ethnic groups include Russians, Kazakhs, Tatars, Ukrainians, Azeris (ethnic Azerbaijanis), Armenians, andBaluch. In 1993 a bilateral treaty between Turkmenistan and Russia granted dual citizenship to Russians in the republic. At the 1995 census Russians cons...

• Quels matériaux choisissent les oiseaux pour leur nid ?

• Gemstones.

  In the late 1960s a method was developed for “growing” diamonds by heating a diamond particle to a high temperature and subjecting it to methane gas. The gasdecomposes into carbon atoms, which adhere to the diamond crystal. The crystal structure of the enlarged diamond is identical to that of a natural diamond. Diamondsof about 1 carat (200 mg or 0.007 oz) have been produced by this method, but their cost is still considerably higher than that of naturally occurring diamonds. Sapphires are made...

• Comparative Anatomy.

  In comparing two species, anatomists have to be careful to differentiate between homologous structures, which are ones that have evolved from a shared ancestor, andanalogous structures, which have developed from different origins. Homologous structures are built on the same underlying plan. A human arm, a bat’s wing, and awhale’s flipper look quite different from the outside, but the bones inside reveal that these limbs all have the same basic structure. Analogous structures, by contrast,often l...

• Combustibles fósiles - geografía.

  antracita (carbón duro con un contenido muy alto en carbono y muy bajo en humedad). Como la antracita es el carbón más rico en carbono y con menor contenido dehumedad, es el de más alto valor energético. Las zonas carboníferas en España se encuentran localizadas en diferentes regiones. En Asturias, León, Palencia, Burgos, Ciudad Real y Córdoba se extraen hulla y antracita;en La Coruña, Teruel y Barcelona, lignito, y en Zaragoza, Lleida y Girona, antracita y lignito. 2.3 Formación del gas natural...

• Barcos menores (diseño y construcción) - ciencia y tecnologia.

  Cuando el volumen sumergido del barco ha sido diseñado para cumplir el requisito de que el peso del barco y su contenido sea igual al peso del agua desplazada, ladistribución debe ser establecida de modo apropiado. El peso de un motor fueraborda en la popa de un barco pequeño tiende a hundirlo más por ese extremo (trima a popa). Si esa tendencia no puede ser compensadacolocando un peso equivalente a proa, la realineación deberá obtenerse ensanchando el casco en la zona de popa de tal forma que u...

• Qu'est-ce que l’idéalisme ?

  Or, c'est l'objectiviti de la connaissance qui est mise en doute par !'idealisme. Nous prenons pour objectivite, d'apres les idealistes, ce qui est, au fond, irreductiblement subjectivite, ou tout au moans ce qui est relatif a la maniere humaine de percevoir et de comprendre. L'idealisme ecrit Le Senne dans a Introduction a la Philosophie a est la philosophie pour laquelle les choses n'existent que par l'acte d'un esprit qui les pense - I -- Il convient d'eliminer trots faux -sans, le sons ordin...

• Les diverses formes de l'athéisme

  1 - Le matérialisme antique (Épicure, Lucrêce) reprend la physique atomiste de Démocrite. Il n'y a pas de • créateur •; le monde, intégralement composé d'atomes matériels et de vide, est un agrégat fortuit d'atomes, de même que les corps. Le monde et les corps vivent et meurent sous le seul règne des lois mécanistiques. 2 - Le matérialisme encyclopédiste et scientiste. C'est celui qui, de Hobbes au XVII• siècle à Haeckel à la fln du...

• Texte Bergson: L'Energie spirituelle (1919), Puf Quadrige, 1999, pp. 36-37 (commentaire)

  cause. Ce pourquoi certains philosophes vont par la suite affirmer que les localisations démontrent que l'esprit n'est que dela matière et donc que le matérialisme est une thèse scientifique démontrée par la science. Or le matérialisme qui prétendse réclamer de la science n'a jamais démontré sa thèse, la simple étude du cerveau démontre la relation entre le cerveau etl'esprit, donc le matérialisme va outre ce que l'expérience affirme, et n'est qu'une simple thèse philosophique. Par...

• Glacier.

  covered. In spring the snow cover begins to melt in the lower reaches, exposing the ice surface. As temperatures increase, the melting moves up the glacier. Thesnowline is the highest position the melting reaches during the year. Firn is old granular snow. The firn limit may not exactly coincide with the annual snowline since insome years rapid melting leaves behind firn patches below the snowline. Some glaciers exhibit features called ice streams and icefalls. Ice streams are valley glaciers th...

• Civil Rights and Civil Liberties.

  A Religious Freedom Although religious freedom has not generally been curtailed in the United States, Roman Catholics, Jews, and members of such unconventional Protestant groups as theOneida Community and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints have historically been discriminated against and sometimes have even been persecuted,although today overt discrimination has almost vanished. The federal Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as many state and local laws, prohibits religious discrimi...

• Définition: EXTRA-, préfixe.

  extra-pyramidal, extra-pyramidaux) - Système extrapyramidal. " Ensemble des noyaux gris moteurs et des fibres afférentes et efférentes situées dans les régions sous-corticales et sous- thalamiques, à l'exclusion de la voie pyramidale et du cervelet. Certains auteurs modernes préfèrent l'expression système sous-cortical " (Dictionnaire des termes techniques de médecine (MARCEL GARNIER, VALÉRY DELAMARE) 1958). Le système extra-pyramidal, branché en dérivation sur le système corticospinal (EMMANUEL...

• littoral.

  3 LES CORDONS LITTORAUX Aux endroits où la côte change brusquement de direction, par exemple dans les estuaires et les baies, la dérive littorale a tendance à construire des flèches et des barres.Les sédiments constituant ces formations, qui finissent par émerger, sont déposés parce qu'ils sont arrachés aux eaux peu profondes et transportés vers les eaux plusprofondes à énergie moindre de la baie ou de l'estuaire. Les flèches s'étendent souvent à partir d'un cap, auquel elles sont fixées à une...

• L'argent est la puissance aliénée de l'Humanité. Marx, Troisième Manuscrit de 1844

  - 2 - Nous reviendrons longuement sur ce concept d’aliénation, très présent dans le texte que nous avons à étudier. Mais d’ores et déjà, donnons lui un sens simple, courant : être aliéné, c’est, pour une conscience, être déterminée par une puissance extérieure à la conscience, en l’occurrence, par la réalité des modes de production de la vie matérielle et ses besoins. Si donc le philosophe est la figure de la conscience en tant qu’elle est aliénée, cela veut dire deux choses : la premi...

• Virus - ciencias de la naturaleza.

  BacteriófagoLos bacteriófagos son virus que parasitan bacterias. Tienen una estructura compleja formada por una cabeza, que contiene el materialgenético, y una cola que consta de unas fibras con las que se anclan a la superficie bacteriana. El material genético del bacteriófagopasa desde la cabeza, a través de la cola, hasta el interior de la bacteria. El material genético del virus se integra dentro del materialgenético bacteriano y se replica. De esta manera el virus se reproduce y forma nuevo...

• La sculpture exprime le lien fondamental de l'homme avec la matière.

  appropriées au matériau choisi (par exemple, la soudure). Complétez votre recherche en consultant : Les corrélats albâtre bas-relief bronze - Le bronze en art ivoire marbre - 1.GÉOLOGIE modèle réduit monument plâtre polychromie primitifs (arts) - Introduction relief - 2.BEAUX-ARTS ronde-bosse tombeau - 1.SCULPTURE Les livres sculpture - figurine des Cyclades (IIIe millénaire avant J.-C.), page 4700, volume 9 sculpture - statue représentant le dieu Hari-Hara, art khmer (VIe si...

• Toys. I INTRODUCTION Toys, objects that serve as playthings for children. Although the

  clay. These readily available elements were also used to make more elaborate toys as human society advanced. Archaeologists have found primitive, handmade toys such as wooden or cloth dolls, clay marbles, and terracotta figures that date back thousands of years. In ancientEgypt, Greece, and Rome, people placed dolls or clay figures in the graves or tombs of children for them to play with in the afterlife. The yo-yo may seem like a 20th-century fad, but it actually dates back at least 2,500 years...

• Fossil Fuels.

  water molecules. This crystalline solid is known as gas hydrate. Because technology for the commercial extraction of gas hydrates has not yet been developed, this typeof fossil fuel is not included in most world energy resource estimates. However, in February 2007 the U.S. Department of Energy completed the drilling of a well toretrieve core samples of gas hydrates found in the Prudhoe Bay region of Alaska’s North Slope. By identifying the nature of these gas hydrates, the Energy Departmenthoped...

• Stone Age.

  limestone, quartzite, and indurated shale. Ground stone tools could be made on a wider range of raw material types, including coarser grained rock such as granite. Flaking produces several different types of stone artifacts, which archaeologists look for at prehistoric sites. The parent pieces of rock from which chips have beendetached are called cores, and the chips that have been removed from cores are called flakes. A flake that has had yet smaller flakes removed from one or more edgesin orde...