Ice Hockey. I INTRODUCTION Ice Hockey, fast-paced winter sport in which two opposing teams of skaters use long, curved sticks to try to drive a hard rubber disk into each other's goal. A rough, action-packed game, ice hockey is considered one of the fastest of all sports. It is played in about 30 countries, principally in North America, Europe, and the countries of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Ice hockey is especially popular in Canada, where the modern game developed. Other forms of the sport include field hockey and street hockey. II RINK Ice hockey can be played outdoors or indoors. Most games are played indoors, where the arena is called a rink. A rink has a rectangular ice surface surrounded by a hard, fixed fence or wall, commonly called the boards. The boards are generally 40 to 48 in (1 to 1.2 m) high. They curve at each corner of the rink. Shatterproof glass fixed atop the boards keeps the puck in play and protects spectators. The rink's dimensions are determined not by the size, age, or skill levels of players, but by where the rink is built. This means that youth hockey players generally compete on the same-sized ice surface as older, more skilled competitors. Standard rinks in North America are 200 ft (60.9 m) long and 85 ft (25.9 m) wide. Most rinks outside North America are 200.13 ft (61 m) long and 98.5 ft (30 m) wide. Rinks are divided into sections, or zones, by painted lines across the ice. Circles and dots also mark important locations. The red centerline splits the ice surface in half. Blue lines situated roughly 60 ft (18 m) from each goal denote end zones. For each team, the zone that it is defending is the defending zone, and the one that houses the opponents' goal is the attacking zone. The area between the blue lines is the neutral zone. The blue spot at center ice is where play begins. Additionally, there are eight red spots on the rink, all approximately 24 feet (7.3 m) from the boards, where play starts again after it has been stopped during a game. At each end of the rink, there is a red line at the point where the boards begin to curve. In the middle of this goal line, the goal is moored. Each goal consists of an iron frame 4 ft (1.22 m) high and 6 ft (1.83 m) wide. Extending from the back of the frame down to the ice surface are thin, curved bars that support a mesh net. Goals are held in place by short pegs embedded in the ice. The pegs and goal posts separate if sufficient contact is made, so that players are less likely to be injured when colliding with the net. Play stops whenever a net is knocked from its pegs. In front of the net is a painted half-circle called the crease. Attacking players are prohibited from entering this area unless the puck is already there. Attacking players are also prohibited from making contact with the goaltender, or goalie, while in the crease. Most rinks have benches for each team. The benches for both teams are on the same side of the ice, but are separated. Each bench has a door at both ends that opens into the bench area, away from the ice. Defensive players generally sit at one end of a bench, offensive players at the other. Because players are often substituted while the puck is in play, players frequently change on the fly, jumping over the boards and onto the ice to replace teammates. Coaches and one or two members of each team's medical and equipment staff are the only other people allowed in the bench area. Opposite the team benches on the other side of the rink are the penalty boxes. Players must go to the box after the referee calls a penalty against them. Like team benches, the penalty boxes are behind the boards, with a door that swings into the box. The boxes for each team are usually separated by a partition or booth where the game timekeeper and penalty timekeeper sit. An official opens the penalty box door when a player's penalty expires. If the puck is in play, players leaving the box either join the play or skate to their bench. III TEAM In a regulation ice hockey game, each team fields six players. There are three positions: forward, defense, and goalie. The three forwards--the center, left wing, and right wing--form a unit called a line. A team rotates lines in and out of the game to maximize effectiveness and keep players fresh. The forwards are joined by two defenders, who also rotate in and out of the game, though less frequently than the forwards. The goalie generally plays the entire game. Although positions are named, players are not bound by rules from skating to all areas of the rink. Forwards sometimes play defense, and defenders will score on occasion. Centers generally skate between the wings and serve as the focal point of the offense. The left and right wings skate on their respective sides of the rink and remain there while playing offense or defense. Traditionally, centers are good passers who feed the puck to the wings, who are good shooters. Like the wings, each defender skates on a specific side of the rink. Although some defenders have exceptional offensive skills, their primary responsibility is to prevent opponents from scoring. Defense is considered the most difficult position to master because defenders must skate backward as well as they skate forward, so that when the opposition attacks, they can face the rush and stop it. They must also be strong enough to prevent opponents from standing in front of the net, where they can easily score. The goalie has one primary responsibility: to prevent the puck from entering the net. Good skating and puck-handling skills are advantages, but the ability to react quickly and block shots are the goalie's most important skills. Each blocked shot, called a save, is recorded. A goalie's save percentage, goals-against average (the number of goals allowed per game), and win-loss-tie record are the primary indications of his or her skill level. A coach and one or more assistants instruct and motivate the players before and during games. The coaches develop strategies to exploit their team's strengths and minimize its weaknesses. During games, a coach determines which players will play, and when. The coach's main objective is to deploy the team in favorable matchups that pit the best defensive players against the opponent's top scorers and vice versa. Because ice hockey is a game of speed and strength, the coach must also ensure that a slower or smaller line does not play against an opponent's faster or larger line. One player from each team serves as captain, appointed by the coach or elected by the players. Generally this person is a respected and trusted leader, and often a top player. The captain wears a C on the uniform jersey, and one or two alternate captains wear an A on their jerseys. The captain and the alternates are the only players permitted to speak with officials regarding rulings made during the game. The captain relays these explanations and interpretations to the coach, who must remain on the bench. IV PLAY Organized ice hockey games are divided into three equal segments called periods. Professional, top-level international, and college games are played for 60 minutes in three 20-minute periods. Two 15-minute intermissions after the first and second periods allow players to rest while the ice is resurfaced. At lower levels, games are shorter, generally 30 or 45 minutes. Each period begins with a face-off at the blue dot at center ice. During the face-off one player from each team lines up at the dot with the stick blade on the ice. After the referee drops the puck, the two players attempt to gain possession of it. Quick hands and strength are essential qualities for players participating in the face-off. Once the puck is dropped, it is in play until an official's whistle stops it, a goal is scored, or time expires. The team on offense tries to move the puck forward and score. The forwards are generally at the head of an offensive rush, while the defenders move up behind them. Meanwhile, the forwards of the defensive team pressure the puck-carriers or position themselves to prevent passes between members of the offensive team. The defenders move back to protect the goalie and net area. Possession of the puck changes frequently, and sometimes intentionally. In a common offensive tactic known as forechecking, offensive teams knock the puck into an opponent's end of the rink, then pressure the opponent who retrieves it. This sometimes allows teams to regain possession far down the ice. Possession also changes when the defense intercepts a pass or when defenders bump a player who has the puck, causing him or her to lose control of it. Play stops after goals are scored, when penalties or other violations are called, after serious injuries occur, and when the puck leaves the playing area. Officials also stop play when the puck is out of their sight for more than one or two seconds. This happens most frequently when a goalie blocks a shot and then covers the puck. The goalie is the only player allowed to stop play in this way. Play does not stop if the puck touches an official or if a player's equipment is damaged. Sticks that break must be dropped to the ice (except by goalies), and players must continue on without one until another stick can be retrieved. After play stops, it is almost always resumed by a face-off at the closest face-off dot. Each face-off represents a chance to gain possession of the puck, so the closer a face-off is held to a net, the more important possession becomes. In most leagues, games tied at the end of regulation play simply end. But sometimes play continues in an overtime period, called sudden death. In these cases, the first team to score in overtime is declared the winner, even if time still remains in the overtime period. Depending on the prevailing rules, some games end in ties if neither team scores during overtime. In games where a winner must be determined--such as a playoff game--there are two main ways to determine the winner. Overtime periods can be played until one team scores a goal, or the teams can have a shoot-out after two overtimes. A shoot-out is when a series of players from each team (usually five) alternate in taking shots on goal. The team that scores the most times wins the game. Many professional minor leagues use shootouts during non-playoff games, when a game remains tied even after a completed overtime period. V PENALTIES During a game, penalties are assessed when players commit a significant foul against an opponent or official. Penalized players are required to leave the ice and spend time in the penalty box. This leaves the team shorthanded for the duration of the penalty (or until the team with the advantage scores a goal). The length of the penalty is determined by the seriousness of the infraction. Only two minor penalties can be served at the same time, so if a team accumulates more than two, the additional ones are served immediately after the earlier ones expire. If a goal is scored on a team that is serving two penalties, only one of the penalized players returns to the game, leaving the team still shorthanded. Minor penalties, which last two minutes, are generally assessed to players who illegally impede an opponent's progress by tripping or holding. Minor penalties may also be called in several other instances: when a player does something that might injure an opponent, such as using the stick illegally; when players or teams intentionally delay a game; or when a team has too many players on the ice. A major penalty lasts five minutes. Major penalties are assessed when a player commits a more serious foul, such as fighting. Some offenses are serious enough to be considered match penalties, which mean ejection from the remainder of the game and the possibility of suspension from further competition. In this case the team plays shorthanded for five minutes and then returns to even strength, without the services of the ejected player. Players or teams can be assessed misconduct penalties for showing a lack of respect for an opponent or official, or for repeatedly ignoring an official's instructions. A teammate is substituted on the ice, and the penalized player may not rejoin the game for ten minutes. A game misconduct penalty is assessed to a player who uses excessive and dangerous physical force, such as by checking from behind or head-butting. In the case of such penalties, which usually indicate intent to injure another player, the penalized player is banned from returning for the duration of the game, and the team must play shorthanded for five minutes. Goalies do not serve minor, major, or misconduct penalties. Instead, their penalties are served by a teammate that was on the ice at the time of the infraction. Goalies are, however, required to leave a game when they are assessed any type of penalty that calls for their removal from the contest. When a penalty or series of penalties leaves one team with more skaters on the ice than its opponents, the team with the player advantage is said to have a power play. The team with the advantage attempts to control the puck with quick passes, trying to create open shots on goal. The disadvantaged team often retreats into a square formation to defend. Players shift to the puck's movement and try to prevent open shots. This is called penalty killing. During a power play, defensive players rarely chase errant shots or attack the opponent's goal. The power play ends when penalty time expires or when the team with the advantage scores a goal. Offsides and icing are two other common rules infractions, but they do not require penalty time to be served. A player is considered offsides when he or she is on offense and crosses the blue line, which marks the attacking zone, before moving the puck into the zone or before it has been advanced there by a teammate. When offsides is called, play is stopped and a face-off is held at a spot outside the blue line, in the neutral zone. Some leagues also use a two-line offsides rule. This infraction occurs when a player makes a pass from behind the defensive blue line to a teammate who has completely crossed the centerline before receiving the pass. When twoline offsides is called, a face-off is held at the spot from where the illegal pass was made. Icing occurs when the puck is shot from behind the centerline (or the defensive blue line in some amateur and European leagues) down the rink to a point beyond the opponent's goal line, without another player touching the puck. Under most rules, the icing call is automatic and play stops when the puck crosses the red line at the end of the rink. In North American professional hockey, however, icing is called only after a defender has touched the puck behind the goal line. In all cases, play resumes with a face-off at one of the spots closest to the offending team's net. VI SCORING A goal is scored whenever the puck completely crosses the goal line and enters the net. The puck does not have to reach the back of the net for the goal to be counted. A goal can be scored on a direct shot, on a tip-in off a pass, on a deflection that a defender knocks in by mistake, or on a shot that accidentally hits an official before scoring. Offensive players cannot intentionally kick a puck into the net or slap it in with their glove. When a shot on goal succeeds, an official makes a hand signal once the puck has crossed the goal line, and play stops. Play resumes with a face-off at the red centerline. A player who scores three goals in the same game is said to have completed a hat trick. A player earns an assist by passing the puck to a teammate who scores a goal on the play. A player who scores a goal without the benefit of an assist is said to have scored an unassisted goal. If a defending player or goalie accidentally puts the puck into his or her own net, the goal is awarded to the last attacking player to touch the puck. Goals and assists each count as one point in a player's personal scoring total. The sum of a player's goals and assists is the player's point total, one of several statistical categories used to measure an individual's offensive performance. VII OFFICIALS Officials, both on-ice and off-ice, supervise an ice hockey game. Elite-level competition generally has four officials on the ice: two referees and two linesmen. The referees call penalties and make the majority of decisions that stop and start play. Linesmen are responsible for stopping play in the event of certain violations, usually offsides and icing. Linesmen also drop the puck for almost all face-offs and are responsible for separating fighting players. Officials dress with black pants and a pullover jersey with alternating black and white vertical stripes. There are several off-ice officials. The game timekeeper operates the main scoreboard clock whenever the officials indicate that play should start or stop. The penalty timekeeper records the time of the game when a player is penalized, the nature of the infraction, and the length of the penalty. The penalty timekeeper's job can become extremely difficult when multiple penalties of varying lengths are assessed. The official scorer keeps an accurate and complete record of a game, including date, site, and a list of participants (players, coaches, officials). The official scorer, not the referees, credits players for goals and assists. One goal judge sits directly behind each goal net in a small booth within the spectator section. Whenever the goal judges see that the puck has completely crossed the goal line, they illuminate a light or siren to alert the referees and players. Some professional leagues also employ a video replay official. This official watches videotape of a play from various angles to determine if a legal goal has been scored, usually at the referees' request. VIII ICE HOCKEY SKILLS Ice hockey players use five basic skills: skating, stickhandling, passing, checking, and shooting. Skating is ice hockey's most important skill. Good skaters are able to accelerate, maintain balance while struggling for the puck, stop quickly, and change direction abruptly. Several players in the National Hockey League (NHL) have been known to skate faster than 25 mph (40 km/h) while handling the puck. Centers and wings skate forward almost exclusively, but defenders must be equally adept at skating forward and backward. Goalies must also master skating skills. Particularly important skills for goalies are moving from side to side quickly and skating backward toward the goal area once they have left it. Players move the puck small distances with a skill called stickhandling--the most difficult skill to master. Basic stickhandling involves the transfer of the puck from one side of the stick blade to the other by moving the wrists from side to side. This action makes it difficult for opponents to know what direction the puck-carrier intends to pass, shoot, or carry the puck. Ideally, players feel the puck on their blade without having to look down at it. This enables them to scan the rink for teammates, make quick shots at the goal, and avoid opponents. Passing is the act of moving the puck from one teammate to another. Accuracy and the proper amount of force to move the puck are essential when making a pass. The flat pass slides smoothly across the ice surface and is easy to control. Players also use flip passes or aerial passes to elevate the puck over a defender's stick or skate. These passes leave the ice surface and land flat just a few inches from the recipient's stick. A drop pass, unlike most other passes, does not advance the puck or move it laterally. A puck-carrier, while moving forward, simply leaves, or drops, the puck for a teammate who is coming from behind. Checking is a defensive skill, and takes several different forms. Players use bodychecking to take the puck away from an opponent. Using shoulders, chest, or hips, a defender makes contact with a puck-carrier in such a manner that the carrier is no longer able to control the puck. Stick-checking, or poke-checking, involves less physical contact. Defenders use their sticks to poke the puck off an opponent's stick. The term checking also refers to the overall process of defensive positioning and coverage. Many teams, for instance, group three players to form a checking line, which is assigned to play against an opposing team's top scoring line. The primary jobs of the checking line are to minimize scoring opportunities for the opposing team and to tire them out. Shooting is the act of propelling the puck toward the opponent's goal net. Accuracy and the quickness with which a player can release the puck are just as important as the speed at which a shot travels. A hard shot is of little use if it misses the net or if opponents can react in time to block it. The fastest shots come from what is known as a player's forehand side. When shooting from the forehand side, a right-handed shooter places the left hand at the top of the stick and the right hand about halfway down the stick's shaft. Most of the power comes from the right hand, wrist, arm, and shoulder. During the shot the player should transfer body weight forward onto the left leg. Left-handed players follow the same process to shoot forehand shots, but in reverse--the right hand is at the top of the stick, the left hand on the shaft, and so on. Wrist shots, snap shots, and slap shots are all forehand shots. When taking a wrist shot, a player cradles the puck on the stick blade, drags blade and puck together along the ice, and with a whiplike motion completed by a snap of the wrists, shoots the puck. A snap shot is similar, but the shooter does not drag the puck with the stick blade. Instead, the puck lies on the ice until the shooter propels it with a short, sharp snap of the wrists. Slap shots are the most powerful shots and have been timed at more than 100 mph (161 km/h). After taking a backswing, the shooter swings the stick back down to the ice with as much force as possible, then strikes the ice just behind the puck and the puck almost simultaneously. Slap shots are often less accurate than other shots, and they take longer to set up because of the long backswing. Backhand shots are generally a player's weakest. Rather than using the muscles in the front part of the arms, a player, usually with the body facing away from the net, propels the puck backwards by using the muscles in the back of the shoulder and upper arm. Although this shot is usually not powerful, it can catch the opposing goalie off guard, especially when a player shoots a backhand shot immediately off a pass. IX EQUIPMENT Ice hockey pucks are made of solid black rubber. Regulation pucks are 1 in (2.5 cm) thick, 3 in (7.6 cm) in diameter, and weigh between 5.5 and 6 oz (156 and 170 g). In June of 2003, the USA Hockey Board of Directors mandated the use of a lighter puck for players ten years old and under. This smaller puck is blue and weighs between 4.0 and 4.5 oz (113 and 128 g). Before and during games, pucks are kept on ice to keep them as hard as possible. When hard, they will bounce less and are easier to control once put in play. Each player uses a hockey stick made of wood, aluminum, or graphite. A stick has a thin, rectangular shaft up to 63 in (1.6 m) long, depending on the height of the player using it. At the bottom of the shaft is the blade, which is 2 to 3 in (5 to 7.6 cm) tall and no more than 12.5 in (31.7 cm) long from where the blade joins the shaft. Most stick blades are curved slightly one direction or the other, which allows for better puck control and makes it easier to lift pucks off the ice when shooting or passing. Most players wrap the blades in black cloth tape to further enhance puck control. They also wrap tape on the top of the shaft, making it easier to grip the stick. Goalies use a slightly different style of stick. About halfway down the stick's shaft, the shaft widens to a maximum of 3.5 in (8.9 cm). Goalies generally grasp the stick with one hand just above the widened portion of the shaft (sometimes called the paddle), so that the blade of the stick is in front of them, on the ice. The blade of a goalie's stick can be taller (up to 3.5 in/8.9 cm) and longer (15.5 in/39.4 cm) than skaters' sticks. Each player wears a jersey, which generally displays the team color and name, and sometimes the logo. The player's last name and number are listed on the back. Helmets, gloves, and pants are the exterior pieces of protective equipment. Helmets, made of hard plastic, frequently include a clear plastic shield to protect eyes or a metal cage that protects the entire face. Some players use a mouthpiece to protect their teeth. Gloves cover not only the hands but also a portion of the forearms. Pants have interior padding to protect the thighs, hips, and kidneys. Beneath the uniform, players wear shoulder pads, elbow pads, and shin pads. Male players also wear a protective cup over the groin. Ice hockey skates are well padded with hard, molded plastic built in to protect the heel, arches, and toes. The lightweight metal blades are about 2 in (5 cm) in height. Ice hockey skates differ from figure skates and speed skates mostly in their blades. Rounded at both ends, the blades do not extend past the toe or heel, as speed skate blades do. The fronts of the blades do not have teeth, which figure skaters use to dig into the ice to execute leaps. Goalies wear the same uniform as their teammates, but much of their equipment is specialized for stopping shots. Outside the uniform goalies wear specially designed masks that cover the entire head. Many goalies wear a padded collar to protect the neck. Rather than interior shin guards, goalies wear larger exterior leg pads, stuffed with foam padding. These wide pads extend from just above the knee to the top of the foot. On the hand that holds the stick, the goalie wears a glove, or blocker, to which is attached a large, rectangular, hard plastic surface covered by leather or a synthetic material. The glove is used for protection and to block shots. On the other hand, the goalie wears a heavily padded trapper, similar to a baseball mitt. Goalies use the trapper to catch shots. X AMATEUR COMPETITION From a young age, players develop their skills and learn about hockey by playing and practicing as much as possible. Watching games, in person or on television, can also be helpful. Some professional teams, in an effort to promote the game and enhance their standing in the community, conduct seminars where they provide instruction. Many aspiring players attend schools or camps in the summer, where they not only spend time on the ice, but also study in the classroom, learning about strategy through lectures or film. In general anyone who does not play hockey for a salary is considered an amateur. In the United States, this includes youth hockey players, high school players, and college players, as well as those who play on certain teams that represent the United States in international competition. In Canada and some European countries, junior hockey is an advanced level of amateur play for those of high school age and just older. Players who leave home to play for such amateur teams often receive some type of stipend and/or living expenses, but no salary. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) oversees many major international tournaments at the amateur level. But national governing bodies such as USA Hockey and Hockey Canada, which are IIHF members, generally assume responsibility and set policies for amateur hockey in their respective countries. USA Hockey, for instance, hires a staff of administrators, coaches, and trainers who design programs to attract and develop players at the amateur level. Each nation's governing body also registers players, coaches, and officials, and is responsible for picking the top players at various age and skill levels to participate in national and international events. In countries where hockey is particularly popular, national governing bodies establish smaller regional boards, which oversee the game in their area. These regional boards, in turn, oversee state or provincial bodies populated by community teams. XI PROFESSIONAL COMPETITION Professional ice hockey leagues exist in many nations, most prominently Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. The National Hockey League (NHL), with 24 teams in the United States and 6 in Canada, is considered the world's top league. NHL teams compete in two conferences, the Eastern and Western, which in turn are divided into three divisions. From October to April, the teams play an 82-game schedule. Midway through the season the NHL holds an All-Star Game that features the league's top players. After the regular NHL season concludes in mid-April, the top eight teams in each conference play in the postseason. Within each conference, three rounds of playoff elimination series are held. Each series is played under a best-of-seven format, meaning that the first team to win four games advances to the next series. The champions of the Eastern and Western conferences play for the Stanley Cup, the oldest team championship trophy in North America. The NHL, the Pro Hockey Writers' Association, the NHL Broadcasters Association, franchise general managers, and the NHL Players' Association give several awards each year to recognize outstanding individual achievements. The Art Ross Trophy goes to the leading scorer; the Hart Memorial Trophy to the most valuable player (MVP); the James Norris Memorial Trophy to the best defenseman; the Vezina Trophy to the leading goaltender; the Calder Memorial Trophy to the best rookie; and the Conn Smythe Trophy to the MVP in the Stanley Cup playoffs. In addition, the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy is given to the player who demonstrates great sportsmanship, the Lester Patrick Trophy is given annually for service to the sport in the United States, and the Adams Award is presented to the league's top coach. Each summer the NHL conducts an amateur draft, in which each team obtains the rights to the professional services of the best amateur and minor league players. Some players advance from a junior or college team directly to the NHL, but most develop their skills in a minor league, such as the American Hockey League, the International Hockey League, and the East Coast Hockey League. Several teams in these leagues have agreements and affiliations with NHL teams. Other minor league professional franchises operate independently. No single governing body oversees the various minor leagues. XII INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION Several international hockey tournaments showcase the world's top ice hockey players. These tournaments include the world championships and the World Cup. The annual world championship tournament, a 16-nation tournament overseen by the IIHF, is played each spring. Because many top players are still competing in the early rounds of the NHL playoffs at the time, the tournament allows talented younger players to gain necessary experience. The women's hockey world championships were first held in 1990. The IIHF also oversees the annual world junior championships, which features the world's top players 19 years old and younger. Many of the top players in this tournament go on to be drafted by NHL teams. Another important international hockey event was the Canada Cup, which was created by the NHL and pitted the best players from the world's top hockey powers against one another in round-robin play. The first Canada Cup was held in 1976, and after five competitions it became the World Cup of Hockey in 1996. However, when NHL players became eligible to compete in the Olympics beginning in 1998, interest in the World Cup waned. Amateurs are eligible for the world championships and Olympics, but in recent years the national rosters have been stocked with professional players, when they are available to play. Canada produces many of the world's best players, so it has traditionally dominated international events (except for the Olympics). The USSR tested the dominance of Canada in major tournaments throughout the 1970s and 1980s, in part because the USSR did not allow its players to compete in the NHL. Many of the great Soviet players came from the Red Army team. This team perfected a style of play in which skating, passing, and puck control on a large ice surface were valued more than the North American game's reliance on power and checking. Men's ice hockey has been played at the Olympic Games since 1920. (In 1920 it was a Summer Games sport, and after the Winter Games began in 1924, hockey became a Winter Olympic sport.) Competition generally begins in a qualifying tournament consisting of two four-nation pools, called Pool A and Pool B. Each nation plays against each team in its own pool. After the round-robin is complete, all teams advance to the quarterfinals. This portion pits the two teams with the best records in each pool against the two teams with the worst records in the opposite pool. Quarterfinal losers are eliminated while winners advance to the semifinals. The winners of the two semifinal matches play each other for the gold medal while the semifinal losers play for the bronze medal. Canada won six of seven Olympic gold medals from 1920 through 1952. With the exception of 1960 and 1980, when the United States scored unexpected victories, Soviet teams won every gold medal from 1956 through 1992. The political breakup of the USSR in the early 1990s finally weakened the Russian team, and in 1994 Sweden took the gold. In 1998, with NHL players participating for the first time, the Czech Republic unexpectedly defeated the United States, Canada, and Russia to earn the gold medal. In 2002 Canada captured the gold medal for the first time since 1952, defeating the United States in the final game. XIII HISTORY Hockey was one of the earliest stick-and-ball games. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, and Arabs played forms of the sport. Hurling, a sport similar to hockey, is known to have been played during the 1st millennium BC in Ireland, and similar sports were adopted by other Europeans in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). Ice hockey was also significantly influenced by lacrosse, a stick-and-ball game developed by native North Americans. The name hockey is thought to have been adapted by the English from the French word hoquet (shepherd's crook). The name was first given to the sport in the 18th century but was not in common usage until the 19th century. British soldiers stationed in Canada devised modern ice hockey in the mid-1850s. In 1879 rules were set by students at McGill University in Montréal, Québec, Canada, and several amateur clubs and leagues were established in Canada by the late 1880s. Ice hockey became extremely popular at northern U.S. colleges in the late 1800s, and by the beginning of the 20th century the sport had spread to Britain and other parts of Europe. The first professional league was established in 1904 in northern Michigan. Because the four-team league included one club from Canada, it was named the International Hockey League. Several leagues followed, including the first significant Canadian professional league, the National Hockey Association (NHA), which began play in 1909. The Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) was founded in 1911. The NHA folded following the 1916-17 season, but its strongest teams then formed the NHL and competed in the 1917-18 season. The NHL remained a four-team Canadian league until the 1924-25 season, when a team from Boston (a popular supporter of amateur hockey) became the first U.S. club admitted. By 1926 there were six U.S. teams in a ten-team NHL. During this early period, players such as forward Howie Morenz of the Montréal Canadiens, defenseman Eddie Shore of the Boston Bruins, and forward King Clancy of the Toronto Maple Leafs drew crowds as the NHL's first great stars. Several organizers were instrumental in building the NHL in its early days. The most prominent included Frank Calder, the first NHL president; Conn Smythe, who helped build and guide Toronto's franchise; and Jack Adams, a coach and general manager in Detroit from 1927 through 1962. World War II (1939-1945) drained the league of players, and by 1942 the NHL consisted of only six teams--the Bruins, the Detroit Red Wings, the Chicago Blackhawks, the Canadiens, the New York Rangers, and the Maple Leafs. After the war the six-team NHL era saw the rise of several dynasties. Forward Gordie Howe and goaltender Terry Sawchuk were stars on the Red Wings, who won four Stanley Cup championships between 1950 and 1955. The Canadiens, spearheaded by forward Maurice Richard, played in the Stanley Cup Finals each year from 1951 through 1960, winning in 1953 and from 1956 to 1960. Hockey gained popularity in the 1960s, and late in the decade the NHL began to expand. The league added ten teams from 1967 to 1972. Hockey's strength as a spectator sport was also shown by the creation in 1971 of the World Hockey Association (WHA), a rival professional league to the NHL. In the summer of 1972 the sport's popularity received another boost with an eight-game competition between Canada's best professionals and the top players from the USSR's Red Army team. The heavily favored Canadians, stunned by the Soviets' prowess, barely edged the Red Army team, 4 games to 3 (with 1 tie). The series came down to the last game, which the Canadians won on a last-minute goal scored by Paul Henderson, who remains a national hero. A fierce rivalry was born, and a subsequent series took place in 1974. Other games between Soviet teams and NHL clubs later in the decade gave more attention to international ice hockey. At the same time, the NHL continued to thrive. Notable standouts of the period included forward Bobby Hull, who scored 610 NHL goals and another 303 in the WHA; Bobby Orr, an innovative defenseman who played chiefly with the Boston Bruins; and Vladislav Tretiak, a Russian goaltender who in 1989 became the first non-North American to be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. The merger of the WHA and the NHL in 1979 and the entry of 18-year-old center Wayne Gretzky into professional play the same year marked the beginning of unprecedented popularity for ice hockey. Gretzky, who came to be called "The Great One," dominated the league over the next 15 years with a streak of unprecedented scoring accomplishments. Other powerful scorers such as centers Mario Lemieux and Mark Messier, right wing Brett Hull, and defenseman Paul Coffey were regarded as the best hockey players of the late 1980s and early 1990s. The 1980 Winter Olympic Games in Lake Placid, New York, also helped spark a boom in ice hockey in the United States. During the Games the U.S. Olympic men's hockey team, a collection of college and minor-league players, defeated the powerful USSR en route to the gold medal. The victory sparked the formation of several new minor leagues and teams in the United States, plus expansion by the NHL into new American markets. XIV RECENT DEVELOPMENTS The breakups of communist nations such as Czechoslovakia and the USSR in the early 1990s enabled more European players to enter in the NHL, because the democratic governments in the newly formed nations did not restrict the movements of players. The change showed in the shifting national makeup of the league. Canadian players once accounted for virtually all NHL players, but by the late 1990s about 60 percent were Canadian, 20 percent American, and 20 percent European. The emergence of talented NHL players such as Pavel Bure of Russia, Teemu Selänne of Finland, and Jaromir Jagr and Dominik Hasek of the Czech Republic boosted ice hockey's appeal worldwide. Meanwhile, Canada continued to produce stars such as Eric Lindros and Paul Kariya, and United States standouts included John LeClair and Mike Modano. This growing pool of talent convinced the NHL to expand to 30 teams by the 2000-2001 season. Teams were placed in warm-weather locales such as Florida, Arizona, and California. At the same time an imbalance emerged between smaller, less financially stable franchises and ones with deep financial backing. The newer franchises and the existing clubs in big cities tended to have more money, while those in smaller cities (usually Canadian) had less. This became an issue as the salaries of outstanding players rose and some teams could not afford to field competitive teams. Several owners were forced to sell their franchises, and the new owners often moved the teams to more lucrative locations. The Québec Nordiques franchise, for example, relocated to Colorado and became the Avalanche following the 1994-95 season, and a year later the Winnipeg Jets moved to Phoenix and became the Coyotes. A NHL and the Olympics In 1998 the NHL stopped play for two weeks at mid-season to permit NHL stars to play for the first time in the Winter Olympics. Inclusion of NHL players on the Olympic squads of the U.S. and Canadian national teams was a first, as these two countries had previously limited their rosters to amateur players. The 1998 Games also hosted the first women's Olympic competition. The games featured six women's teams, from Canada, China, Finland, Japan, Sweden, and the United States. The United States defeated Canada to win the gold medal, and the rivalry between the two countries generated wider interest in the sport among girls and young women. NHL players again participated when the 2002 Winter Games were held in Salt Lake City, Utah. The Canadian and American men's teams met in the gold medal game for the first time since 1952, with the Canadians winning to claim their first Olympic title in 50 years. The same countries reached the women's final for the second consecutive Olympics, with Canada upsetting the United States to win their first women's hockey gold medal. B Challenges and a Lost Season The NHL entered the 21st century facing significant challenges. The league remained a distant fourth in popularity compared with the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), and Major League Baseball. Player payrolls continued to grow while television ratings and revenues shrank, and the imbalance in financial resources between teams continued to be a serious issue. Faced with uncertainty over the league's future course, NHL officials were forced to sign a television deal with the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in May 2004 that contained no payment for the broadcast rights, only a revenue-sharing agreement. With the league's collective bargaining agreement (CBA) set to expire during the 2004 off-season, the NHL's financial problems moved to the forefront. Team owners declared that they were losing millions of dollars a year and called for a limit on player salaries, known as a salary cap. The players' union refused to accept a cap or any other deal that linked salaries with league revenues. When the CBA ended in September, the owners locked out the players. After months of negotiations failed to produce an agreement, the NHL canceled the season in February 2005. It was the first time a major North American professional sports league lost an entire season due to labor problems. In July 2005 the two sides finally reached a new six-year agreement, ensuring a full NHL season in 2005-06. The main provision of the deal--perceived as a victory for the owners--was a salary cap that reportedly limited player compensation to 54 percent of league revenues, which amounted to about $39 million per team based on 2005-06 projections. To help teams stay under the cap, the agreement also mandated that existing player contracts be cut by almost 25 percent. Contributed By: Mike Loftus Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
