Cross

A Roman instrument of torture that became one of the main symbols of CHRISTIANITY. Pre-Christian religions used the form of the cross— two lines that intersect—in many ways. Two examples are the ankh, an ancient Egyptian symbol of life, and the swastika, a symbol of well-being in ancient India. But the cross takes on special meaning in Christianity because it was the instrument on and by which JESUS died. For its fi rst 300 years, Christianity was illegal, and Christians were reluctant to use the cross as a symbol. But in 313 Emperor Constantine won an important battle after seeing a cross in the sky and hearing the words, "In this sign you will conquer." He removed the restrictions against practicing Christianity, and Christians used the cross widely for decorative purposes. At fi rst Christians depicted bare crosses. Eventually artists also portrayed Jesus suffering on the cross, sometimes in graphic detail. The symbol of the cross has played an important role in Christian RITUAL. Cross-bearers have led processions, perhaps at fi rst in imitation of processions put on for the rulers. Christians have marked out a cross as they prayed by touching their forehead, their heart, and their shoulders. In 326 Constantine's mother, Helena, claimed to have discovered remains of the actual cross on which Jesus was crucifi ed. Christians have used these remains, and others, as relics to help them WORSHIP, especially in the Middle Ages. The symbol of the cross has also been important socially and intellectually. The CRUSADES got their name from the red crosses that the crusaders wore emblazoned on their shirts. Many theologians have used the cross to guide their refl ections. An ancient theologian, Justin Martyr (c. 100–c. 165), saw the cross in every tool necessary for human survival. Others have seen in the cross a symbol of GOD's domination over the entire universe. The sufferings and death of Jesus stand at the center of Martin LUTHER's thought. Therefore, many have called it a "THEOLOGY of the cross." Not all Christians, however, have used visible representations of the cross. Churches infl uenced by the thought of John CALVIN have not traditionally displayed crosses or crucifi xes. Crosses were thought to violate the restrictions against worshipping images. In the 20th century many, but not all, Calvinist churches abandoned this restriction. They now use crosses the way other Christians do.