Ancient Egypt.

« around 4500 BC.

The style and decoration of the pottery found at these sites differ from those of pottery found in Upper Egypt.

The northern type eventually fell out of use.

Other differences between the peoples in Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt include the nature of their architecture and the arrangements for burial of the dead, thelatter perhaps signifying differing religious beliefs. B Unification and Early Dynastic Period By 3500 BC, the settlement of Hierakonpolis, located on the west bank of the Nile between Luxor and Aswān, had become a central site of Predynastic culture—that is, the culture that existed before the time of the first Egyptian dynasties, or families of rulers.

Hierakonpolis soon became a large and important administrative andeconomic center.

Its religious rituals took place in a structure that is now seen as a primitive form of later Egyptian temples.

A large brick tomb, constructedunderground, apparently was the burial site of an early local ruler.

Some of its decorations and images, such as a scene of the ruler smiting his enemies, are the sameas those used in the times of the Egyptian kings.

Many elements of the culture at Hierakonpolis, including the division into social classes, were typical of othersettlements along the Nile.

The archaeological evidence makes it clear that the culture of Upper Egypt, not that developing in Lower Egypt, was exerting influence andperhaps some control over an expanding geographic area. It is possible that a center such as Hierakonpolis or Abydos, also in Upper Egypt, began to exert control over other settlements and that the unification of ancient Egyptwas in reality the gradual growth of one center’s influence.

Several king lists, or lists of rulers, some of which were prepared after 1550 BC and are quite complete, as well as histories dating to the Classical Age (500-323 BC), indicate that a ruler named Menes was Egypt’s first monarch.

He reigned around 3100 BC.

However, some of these documents refer to earlier rulers or even to a series of demigods (mythical beings who were partly divine and partly human).

This information, as well as the archaeological evidence, implies that rival small kingdoms existed in the late Predynastic period, just before 3000 BC.

Eventually one of their rulers established control over Upper Egypt and then perhaps became powerful enough to exert dominance over both the north and the south. No one knows which, if any, of the rulers whose names are preserved from this period can be identified with Menes.

Perhaps it is Aha or Narmer, whose names arerecorded on some of the oldest artifacts.

An image of Narmer appears on his Palette, a large ceremonial slate slab that dates to around 3100 BC and was found at Hierakonpolis.

On it Narmer wears two crowns: on one side, the white crown of Upper Egypt; on the other side, the red crown of Lower Egypt.

He is the first individualto be depicted with the royal headgear of both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.

Other insignia and images later associated with the Egyptian monarch also appear on thepalette, and Narmer is shown triumphant over enemies, including, in a symbolic manner, the delta.

The scene on the palette is sometimes interpreted as ritual imagery,but it may have some historical truth.

Excavations in the late 20th century at the Upper Egyptian site of Abydos, where the early kings were buried, may provide somesupport for the historical interpretation.

A small ivory label found in the tomb of Narmer has a carved scene that appears also to represent that king’s victory over thedelta.

Moreover, the same expedition uncovered a structure dating from around 3250 BC.

In that structure were found a scepter, wine jars from the nearby land of Canaan, and more labels, some of which were records of products from the delta.

This material supports the idea that Upper Egypt came to dominate Lower Egypt evenearlier than 3100 BC and controlled trade with the east. The Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived in the 3rd century BC, recorded the royal history by organizing the country’s rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families.

Some Egyptologists (people who study ancient Egypt) now suggest altering his list of dynasties by adding at the beginning a Dynasty 0, which may have lasted about 150 years, from about 3100 to about 2920 BC.

During this period, Egyptian unification appears to have taken place, the structure of the Egyptian state seems to have been formed, and writing first appeared.

The 1st and 2nd dynasties, which cover a time span of about 300 years, from around 2920 to around 2650 BC, brought the further development of a complex society, the rise of the state, and Egypt’s emergence as a power in the ancient world. C Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period Fairly early, perhaps during Dynasty 0, the administrative center of Egypt shifted to Memphis, which is located just below the southern tip of the delta.

It is not knownwhen Memphis was founded.

Memphis was well positioned to be the seat of government of the now unified land.

The royal cemetery continued to be located at Abydos,in the south.

The last ruler of the 2nd Dynasty, Khasekhemwy, was responsible for the construction of the last royal tomb of this period there.

This ruler, who also builta monument at Hierakonpolis, may have constructed a funerary monument at Şaqq ārah (Sakkara) as well, thus paving the way for the establishment of the royalcemetery at that northern location.

Şaqq ārah was to serve as the royal cemetery for much of the Old Kingdom, a period that some scholars believe began with the 3rdDynasty (about 2649-2575 BC) and others believe began with the 4th Dynasty (about 2575-2467 BC).

The Old Kingdom lasted until around 2134 BC and was followed by the First Intermediate Period. The size of the funerary monuments of Egypt’s royalty still impresses visitors today.

These huge burial complexes provide a wealth of information about the society andculture of the people who produced them.

Imhotep, the architect for Djoser, second king of the 3rd Dynasty, constructed what appears to be the world’s firstmonumental stone building for the eternal resting place of a king.

Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Şaqq ārah is perhaps one of the earliest in a series of burial complexes thatculminated in the pyramids at Giza, which date to the 4th Dynasty.

The largest of these pyramids, known as the Great Pyramid, was built for King Khufu, the secondking of the 4th Dynasty.

These construction projects required a huge workforce of several hundred thousand laborers over a period of many years.

The successfulcompletion of the pyramids depended on a stable and well-developed economy, a well-established administrative bureaucracy, and immense public support.

Moreover,Egypt had to be at peace with its closest foreign neighbors to provide the necessary concentration for this work.

Unskilled workers toiled on the projects during themonths of the Nile flood, when they could not farm, but craftspeople, artisans, stonemasons, managers, and others worked year-round.

Devotion on the part of all thepeople to the king and his burial project was an important element in the success of the project.

The royal office was considered divine, and the ruling king was believedto be a god on Earth, a mediator between humankind and the deities.

Working for this god and securing his place among the divinities for all eternity could beinterpreted as an expression of the religious devotion of the people. From the end of the 5th Dynasty in about 2323 BC, the interiors of the pyramids contained texts carved on the walls.

This collection of hymns, spells, instructions on how to act in front of the gods, and rituals, now called the Pyramid Texts, is the oldest body of religious literature yet discovered.

As time went on, the size and the quality ofpyramid construction diminished, in large part as a result of financial strain on the treasury.

In addition, the nation had to deal with hostile neighbors, and a change inclimate apparently caused serious droughts, references to which are found in texts and scenes. By the end of the 6th Dynasty in about 2150 BC, the chiefs of the provincial areas, or nomes, were becoming increasingly powerful.

Eventually the chiefs, called nomarchs, established hereditary offices and became local rulers, thus paving the way for internal rivalries and hastening the breakdown of the central administration.The First Intermediate Period ensued.

It lasted from about 2134 to about 2040 BC and included the next several dynasties.

During this period the nomarchs of Herakleopolis, in the northern part of Upper Egypt, rose to power.

However, another rising power, based in the south at Thebes, challenged their authority andsucceeded in reuniting the land. D Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period In around 2040 BC, Nebhepetre-Mentuhotep, the ruler based at Thebes, defeated the nomarch of Herakleopolis and once more united the land under central authority. This reign marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, which lasted until about 1640 BC.

Nebhepetre-Mentuhotep established the 11th Dynasty and governed from. »